It was most often used by Roman writers to refer to the state and government, even during the period of the Roman Empire. The term can quite literally be translated as "public matter". While Bruni and Machiavelli used the term to describe the states of Northern Italy, which were not monarchies, the term res publica has a set of interrelated meanings in the original Latin. To describe non-monarchical states, writers (most importantly, Leonardo Bruni) adopted the Latin phrase res publica. The terminology changed in the 15th century as the renewed interest in the writings of Ancient Rome caused writers to prefer using classical terminology. They used terms such as libertas populi, a free people, to describe the states. In the late Middle Ages, writers such as Giovanni Villani began writing about the nature of these states and the differences from other types of regime. In medieval Northern Italy, a number of city states had commune or signoria based governments. Also amongst classical Latin, the term "republic" can be used in a general way to refer to any regime, or in a specific way to refer to governments which work for the public good. However, in Book III of his Politics, Aristotle was apparently the first classical writer to state that the term politeia can be used to refer more specifically to one type of politeia: "When the citizens at large govern for the public good, it is called by the name common to all governments ( to koinon onoma pasōn tōn politeiōn), government ( politeia)". However, apart from the title, in modern translations of The Republic, alternative translations of politeia are also used. One of Plato's major works on political science was titled Politeia and in English it is thus known as The Republic. The term politeia can be translated as form of government, polity, or regime and is therefore not always a word for a specific type of regime as the modern word republic is. Cicero, among other Latin writers, translated politeia as res publica and it was in turn translated by Renaissance scholars as "republic" (or similar terms in various European languages). The term originates from the Latin translation of Greek word politeia. Most often a republic is a single sovereign state, but there are also subnational state entities that are referred to as republics, or that have governments that are described as republican in nature. This constitution was characterized by a Senate composed of wealthy aristocrats wielding significant influence several popular assemblies of all free citizens, possessing the power to elect magistrates and pass laws and a series of magistracies with varying types of civil and political authority. The term developed its modern meaning in reference to the constitution of the ancient Roman Republic, lasting from the overthrow of the kings in 509 BC to the establishment of the Empire in 27 BC. This remains true today among the 159 states that use the word "republic" in their official names as of 2017, and other states formally constituted as republics, are states that narrowly constrain both the right of representation and the process of election. In many historical republics, representation has been based on personal status and the role of elections has been limited. Representation in a republic may or may not be freely elected by the general citizenry. A republic, based on the Latin phrase res publica ("public affair"), is a state in which political power rests with the public through their representatives-in contrast to a monarchy.
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